The industrialization of European societies

1. Introduction.

   -Nineteenth century Britain -> Industrial Revolution occurs.
   -Britain is diffused into Western Europe.
   -From the industrial revolution:

      -There is a new economic system -> Capitalism.
      - There is a new economic doctrine-> economic liberalism.
      - There is a new company -> class society -> two classes.

         -Owners of means of production are capitalists.
         - Those who sell their labor for a wage, are proletarians.

   -There is a new form of production -> machines.
       - There is new energy sources -> Vapor.


2.  Causes of the Industrial Revolution.

  2.1. Demographic causes.

   -From 1850 -> demographic revolution occurred.
   - Vegetative growth = Birth and less mortality.
   - Before 1850 vegetative growth down high birth and high mortality.
   - From 1850 vegetative growth because high fertility remains very high and the birth rate begins to decrease.
   - Causes of the decline of mortality:

      -Improvements in medicine.
      - Improvements in hygiene.
      - Increase food production.

   -In addition to lowering mortality increases life expectancy.


  2.2. Agricultural revolution.

   - Introduction of new farming techniques:

      -Step norkfolk triennial rotation system.
      - We'll have more food production.
      - The population will be better fed.

   -New crops -> corn, potatoes, turnip ...


  2.3. Other causes.

   -In Britain there is no absolutism, no parliamentary monarchy.
   - Parliament makes laws for businesses.
   - Britain is the first maritime and commercial power.
   - Great Britain's commercial freedom.
   - Britain's economic freedom.


  2.4 . Technological innovations : Machines .

   -The machines are progressively replacing manual labor.
   - Energy sources for machines :

      -First -> human strength.
      - Second -> hydropower.
      - Third -> Revolution - > steam.

   -Greatly increases productivity.
   - Increased production .
   - Decreased costs.
   - Increased production and lower costs :

      -Lower the final price -> upload = upload demand benefits.

   - Appearance of the factory system -> are machines and workers together in a building called factory where the division of labor occurs, each worker does a specific job.
   - First machining industry is cotton :

      -Two cotton work :

         - Spinning -> machined later -> Mule called Jenny .
         - Knit -> is machined first -> The machine is called thrower wheel.

      - The other pioneers to be the coal and iron industries.

         - Coal -> is the energy source
         - Iron -> is the raw material for the machines.


  2.5. The transport revolution .

   -Railroad -> going to be revolutionary by:
:
      - The amounts so large it can carry.
      - Faster .
      - Insurance .

     - The first railway line was Liverpool- Manchester.
     - From here the railway network is built in Europe.
     - Major development in the steel industry.
     - The railroad carries more things and further and faster -> supposed decrease in costs and thus decreases the price.

   -Steamboat :

      -You will provide a stimulus for the steel industry .
      - You can carry more :

         - Quantity .
         - Speed ​​.
         - Security.

   -These inventions will favor long trade.
   - Van to enter the market economy -> production is for sale.
   - Trade can be:

      - Interior.
      - Exterior .

   - Foreign trade - > there are two economic theories :

      - Theory Free Camper -> think that free trade is necessary and also encourages the growth of the economy.
      - Theory protectionist -> think you need to defend national industry with import tariffs .

   - Internal trade also greatly increased thanks to the improved transportation .


3. Capitalism and liberalism.

   -Industrial Revolution :


      - New economic model -> Capitalism .
      - New economic doctrine -> Liberalism


   - Capitalism:


      - It is based on private ownership of the means of production .
      - Class society .
      - Two basic groups of people:


         - Production media owners who are entrepreneurs have capital.
         - Those without capital they have is their labor and sell it in exchange for a salary , are proletarians .

   -Liberalism -> principle of liberalism was formulated by Adam Smith, a book called -> The Wealth of Nations .

      - Adam Smith says:


         - The state should not intervene in the economy .
         - The economy is governed by the law of supply and demand.
         - The engine of the economy is the benefit and individual interest of the people .


   - In the capitalist system are going to be very important :


      - Banks -> raise capital and will act as intermediaries between those who have money and those who need credit.


   - Companies increasingly need more capital -> appear SA ( Corporations ) -> The capital is divided into shares and each shareholder owns a share of the profits.


      - Actions -> bought or sold on the stock market that bag .


   - Expansion of the industrial revolution :


      - The first - > Britain.
      - Shortly after - > France , Belgium, Germany and Russia.
      - Third place -> Japan and USA
      - Rest of the European countries .



4.The second industrial revolution.

   -Occurs in the late nineteenth century.
   - The leading powers -> Germany , USA and Japan
   - Characteristics of the second industrial revolution :

      - New energy sources :

         - Electricity - > clean, cheap and easy to carry .
         - Oil - > cheap.

      - New inventions such as:

         - Combustion engine .
         - The tire .
         - Bulb.
         - Tramway .
         - Cinematograph .
         - Radio .

      - New industries :

         - Chemicals - > Pharmaceutical products , fertilizers, pesticides ...
         - Food -> packaged products.
         - Metal -> stainless steel and aluminum .
         - Automobile - > Henry Ford -> Ford creates the T - > first utility .

      - New industrial organization :

         - Mass production :

            - Upload productivity.
            - Lower manufacturing time .
            - Increases production .
            - Decreases the cost -
           - Results of this -> low price and benefits the employer up .

         - Chain Manufacturing -> each worker takes a part of the process , eliminate unnecessary movements , displacements and the need to think , is called Taylorism -> dramatic increase in productivity.
         - Industrial Concentration -> 4 major types:

            - Cartel -> is an agreement between companies in the same industry to not have competition.
            - Trutat -> is the union of several companies in the same industry to not have competition.
            - Holding - > is a company that controls different companies different economic activity.
            - Monopoly -> a company that controls an exclusive product and imposes price .


5.Industrial society , class society .

   -Before the revolution -> stratified society .
   - From the Revolution - > class society -> Bourgeoisie and Proletariat .
   - Bourgeois -> owners of the means of production.
   - Proletariat -> sells the workforce in exchange for a wage.
   - Bourgeoisie :

      - Can be :

         - Large - > bankers.
         - Media - > professions.
         - Small - > employees.

      - The bourgeoisie will be the most important social group , the proletariat will imitate life forms , the bourgeoisie lives comfortably .

   - Proletariat :

      - Are most of the population.
      - They work in factories.
      - Living -> work between 14-16 hours a day, 7 days a week.
      - Do not have health insurance.
      - No unemployment , no subsidy, no casualties.
      - They have no severance pay.
      - Dismissal free .
      - Salary poor .
      - There is no minimum age to start working normally at age 7 .
      - Women and children are paid less .
      - There is no regular law governing their working conditions .
      - Factories are dark, damp places, unventilated -> posts are insoluble therefore will be the focus of disease.
      - Life expectancy approximately 30 years.
      - They live crowded without basic services.


6. Labor movements .

   -The labor movement began in the nineteenth century.
   - First labor unions were mutual aid - > to give financial assistance in case of death , sickness or unemployment
   - At the same time appears a movement called -> Luddism -> is that workers blame the machines for the situation and destroy -> when the employee realizes that the fault of the employer 's motion disappears .
   - From the 1830s the first unions appears -> workers already have class consciousness -> realize they have the same problems , have common goals and should fight together.
   - Objectives of unions are:

      - Improve living conditions -> less hours and more pay.
      - Improving working conditions -> no child labor and health and safety .

   -Marxism -> a half of the nineteenth century appears this social movement.

      - Ideologue :

         - Marx.
         - Engels.

      - Works:

         - EL capital.
         - Communist Manifesto .

      - Ideological principles:

         - Marx studied history and concludes that throughout history there have been three companies, slave , feudal , capitalist , always going to be the oppressed and the oppressors will always be enfrontados and that is the class struggle that Marx says that this struggle is the motor of history .
         - Now there's capitalist system -> where overproduction crisis periodically occur -> capital is increasingly concentrated in fewer hands , so that the rich are getting richer and fewer and fewer and the poor are poorer and more quantity .
         - Future - > Marx says that crises of overproduction are growing , so there will be fewer but will be very rich richer and the poor poorer and have more time.
         - Solution for Marx -> is the revolution of the proletariat -> the proletariat to seize power and property socialize and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat is the abolition of private ownership of the means of production which passed into the hands of the state and the state is very strong and controls everything , and the next step is to Marx 's communist society , at this stage there is an egalitarian society without social classes and the state disappears.

   - In the late nineteenth century born socialist labor parties across Europe.

      - Ideological principles:

         - Proletarian revolution.
         - Intervene in elections and participating in political life - > to be in parliament and make laws as:

            - Improving working conditions .
            - Lower the workday.
            - Abolish child labor .
            - Increase of salary.

   - Anarchism

      - Ideologue :

         - Bakunin.
         - Proudhon.

      - Principles :

         - The most important is individual freedom , but within the collective solidarity.
         - They are against hierarchical institutions ( church , state and exercised ) .
         - They are against private property , they defend the commons.
         - It is against class society , they want an egalitarian society.
         - Ideal for them Company is a stateless society , or classes or private property where there are communities that manage themselves .

   - Internationalism :

      - In 1864 in London the IWA (International Workers Association ) is created.
      - Associations workers worldwide -> unionists , Marxists and anarchists.
      - Objective -> join efforts , take action together to improve the living conditions of workers.
      - They ask :

         - First day of 10 hours, then 8 hours.
         - A day of rest a week.
         - Proibición child labor.
         - Improving working conditions .

      - The first international ( I) eventually disappeared by divergence of anarchists and Marxists and shortly after the Second International (II ) where only socialists created.

Liberalism and Nationalism

1. The French Revolution.

   1.1. Causes.

   -Economics -> general crisis.

      - Subsistence Crisis -> crop -> increases the price of commodities -> people starve.
      -Financial Crisis:

         -What's wrong court management.
         -For the cost of the war against Britain.
         -For the cost of support to the U.S.A war of independence.

      -Ministers of Louis XVI want the privileged pay taxes.

   -Social-> malaise.

      -The privileged-> not want to pay taxes.
      -Bourgeois-> have economic power, have no political power.
      -The village-> impoverished and hungry.

   -Ideological-> dissemination of the political principles of the Enlightenment.
   -All these causes lead to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

  1.2 . Stages.

   -1st stage : the Estates General and the National Assembly.

      -Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to pay tax privileged.

         -3 ( bourgeois ) requires personal vote .
         -King and the privileged do not accept.
         -3 leaves and becomes national assembly.
         -They call the people and this is the July 14, 1789 making the hem -> the people weapon.
         -King acknowledges the National Assembly and the privileged orders combined.
         -National Assembly prepares tasks:

            -France is a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy.
            -Abolish feudalism and manorial rights.
            -Approves the Bill of Rights of Man and Citizen .

      -Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen :

         -Equality before the law.
         -Right to liberty and property .
         -National Sovereignty.
         -Everyone can access public office.
         -Freedom of expression.
         -Religious freedom .
         -Everyone has to pay taxes.
         -Constitution must ensure two things :

            -Separation of powers.
            -Rights of Persons Property ( liberty and equality )
           
      -They make 1791 the first French constitution .
      -Separation of powers:

         -Legislative -> National Assembly.
         -Executive -> king.
         -Judicial -> courts.

      -Censatario Suffrage .
      -Separation of church / state.
      -Acknowledges all individual freedoms.
      -Strong tensions :

         -Monarchy and nobility conspire revolution.
         -People ask for more reforms.
       
      -King is caught fleeing to Austria - > stopped - > France declares war on Austria.
      -People keep asking more -> popular revolt -> assault the royal palace.

   -2nd stage: democratic republic.

      -Assault the royal palace -> Abolition of the Monarchy -> Republic proclamation .

         -Government formed by Girondins ( moderate Republicans ) -> sent by Danton.

            -Trial of Louis XVI and Antoinette M ° -> just guillotined -> European monarchies declare war on France.
            -Interior of France > counterrevolutionary riots .
            -There is instability -> fall of the Girondins -> arrested and guillotined -> Power goes to Jacovins .
     
         -Jacovins ( Radical Republicans ) -> ordered by Robespierre

            -Anyone suspected of being counter was arrested and guillotined.
            -Coup bourgeois and falling Jacovins.

   -3rd stage: bourgeois republic .

      -Mastery of the conservative bourgeoisie .
      -Attempt to return in early 1791.
      -A new constitution > 1791 :

         -Suffrage lessee.
         -Division of powers:

            -Executive -> managers (5 persons ) .
            -Legislative -> two cameras :

               -Council of 500.
               -Council of elders.

            -Judicial -> courts.
         -Opposition :

            -Aristocracy.
            - Small bourgeoisie.

         -Causes social crisis.
         -Economic Crisis by a steady rise in commodity prices .
         -War of European absolute powers.
         -All this causes increased prestige of the army -> produce the coup of Napoleon Bonaparte.



2.Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

   -1799 - > Getting the consulate.
   -Napoleon gradually assumed all the power and in 1804 was crowned emperor.
   -Authoritarian government .
   -Main measures:

      -Domestic Policy -> all centralizing measures were :

         -Create a national education system .
         -Unify the legislation.
         - Reform the entire administration .

      -Foreign policy :

         -Wants a European continental empire dominated by France and governed by it -> policy expansively.
         -Get dominate most of Europe except Great Britain and Russia.
         -In the territories it dominates :

            -Put a relative or trusted by the king .
            -Imposes revolutionary ideas.
            -Remove feudalism.
            -Imposes freedom and equality.

         -Act as French invaders and the people rejected.
         -1808 -> Spanish uprising against the French.
         -1812 -> Russia Catástofe cold.
         -1815 - > Defeat and death of Napoleon at St. Helena.
     

3.A Europe begins restoration.

   -Attempted everything is like in 1789.
   -European Powers who beat Napoleon meet at the Congress of Vienna (1815).
   -Congress of Vienna:

      -Reforming the European map.
      -Austria, Russia, Prussia, France (absolutist powers) create -> Holy Alliance -> Pact military aid to prevent any liberal revolution in Europe.

   -Opposition to the restoration will be:

      -Liberalism:

         -People are not all subjects are citizens and have equal rights and duties.
         -The sovereignty belongs to the people.
         -Everyone has the right to property and freedom.

      -Nationalism:

         - Political ideology.
         -A town that shares the language, history, traditions ...
         -They want to match nation and state.


4.Liberal revolutions .

  4.1 . Revolutions of 1820-1823 .

   -Revolutionary Wave much of Europe.
   -In some countries establishing liberal regimes .
   -At the end becomes absolutism.

  4.2 . Second revolutionary wave of 1830.

   -Movements in Western and Central Europe.
   -Where winning end of absolutism and impose a conservative liberal government.
   -Conservative Liberal Government :

      -Domain of the big bourgeoisie
      - Go to marginalize the petty bourgeoisie and the working classes.
      -Will want censatario suffrage.
      -Individual liberties will be restricted

  4.3 . The Spring of Nations 1848.

   -1848 rpm -> first appears :

      -Democratic Ideals ask :

         -Universal suffrage .
         - Social Equality.

      -Work Improvement .

   -Most revolutions fail and a second restoration of absolutism very smoothing occurs .



5. Unification of Italy and Germany.

  5.1 . Italy .

   -XIX century in Italy there are 6 independent states :

      -Kingdom of the Two Sicilies -> two Bourbons in charge.
      - Papal State -> occupied by the papacy.
      - Lombardy and Veneto -> dominated by the Austrian Empire.
      - Tuscany -> is a Duchy .
      - Piedmont - > no liberal and parliamentary monarchy.

    -Italian Village has the desire for unity .
    - Bought language and culture -> favorable to unification.
    - Unification process will be led by Piedmont:

      -Victor Manuel Rey Savoy
      -Prime Minister Cavour

   -1859 - > Piedmont declared war on Austria in Lombardy.
   - Make Piedmont and annexed Minorca .
   - 1860-1861 :

      -A central -> ducats peblicits -> and annexed Minorca .
      - While Garibaldi ( revolutionary leader) and his volunteers called Red Shirts landed in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies -> demolish the Bourbons and dejanel territory in Piedmont.

   -861 -> the first Italian parliament meets -> proclaimed king Victor Manuel Savoy.
   - 1866 -> The Austrians abandoned this Veneto and was annexed to Italy.
   - 1870 -> papacy does not recognize the annexation and starts a conflict that lasted until the early twentieth century - > Italy annexed the Papal States .
   - Thus was born a liberal monarchy -> with the name of Italy.


5.2. Germany.

   -36 independent states.
   - Indicative unit because they share language and culture.
   - Process led by Prussia -> liberal monarchy led by Wilhelm II and Chancellor Bismarck Van.
   - Like A unification in Italy was at war basse.
   - 1834 -> A customs union is created -> Zollverein
   - Thus was born Germany.

The eighteenth century: the crisis of the old regime

1. The eighteenth-century Europe.

  1.1. A stately agriculture.

   -The most important economic sector is agriculture.
   -Subsistence -> production of own consumption.
   -Three-year-fallow rotation.

                               

                                             1. Cereal primavera.
                                             2. Cereal fall.
                                             3. Fallow.

   -A slight majority for production and consumption.
   -Slight specialization.
   -Is the major cereal crops.
   -Periodically subsistence crisis = hunger and mortality.
   -Land is owned by the lords (nobles, clergy ..).
   -Peasants:

      -They pay rents to their lords.
      -Pay tithe to the church.
      -Pay taxes to the king.
      -They have to work for free demesne lands.
      -Must go to war if Mr. sends


  1.2. An absolute monarchy.

   -Absolutism means that the king has absolute power over everything and everyone.
   -Monarchy of divine right.
   -Concentrates all powers.
   -Sovereignty is the king.
   -The king is advised by state council.
   -There parliament convenes but only when you need money.


  1.3. Stratified society.

   -It is based on inequality between people.
   -There is little social mobility.
   -5% of the population are → the king, nobles and high clergy
   - 95% of the population are → bourgeoisie, lower clergy, popular and peasant classes.
   -Insiders:

      -Nobility and high clergy.
      -Few.
      -They own most of the land.
      -They charge rents.
      -Don't pay taxes.
      -Occupy all charges.
      -They are honorable and economic concessions.
      -The clergy charged tithing.

   -No privileged:

      -Lower clergy → live modestly.
      -Bourgeoisie:

         -Improve economically through trade.
         -They are rich but they have political power or influence.
         -Pay taxes.

      -Popular classes:

         -Pay royal and local taxes.
         -Harsh living conditions.

      -Farmers:

         -Pay taxes to the king, lord and church.
         -The majority of the population.
         -Harsh living conditions.


2. Economic expansion of the eighteenth century.

   -Eighteenth century:
  
      -There is international peace.
      -No major epidemics.
      -Introduction of new productive crops such as potatoes and corn.
      -Increases population.
      
   -With increasing population increases the demand → product → increases production increases profits →  economic stimulus.
   -Increase in local and colonial trade.
   -Profitable colonial trade → Europe sells processed and luxury → purchase agricultural products = highest profit.
   -Triangular Trade.


3. Illustration.

   -Intellectual movement that has given Europe in the eighteenth century.
   -Question all the principles of the old regime.
   -Principles of illustration:

      - Absolute faith in reason.
      -They believe that all people are born equal.
      -They think that human life is to be happy.
      -They think that science and progress has help us be happy.
      -Reject religious intolerance and superiority of any religion.
      -Defend freedom of conscience of each.
      -Respect nature.
      -Reject the stratified society and absolutism.
      -Defend economic freedom and national sovereignty.


  3.1. The political thought.

   -New political doctrine liberalism.
   -Defend the separation of powers.
   -Legislative branch makes the laws → parliament.
   -Executive branch enforces the laws → Prime Minister's ministers.
   -Judiciary → causes → Judges and law courts met.
   -Principles of national sovereignty:

      -The power comes from the people.
      -The people express their will through the ballot.
      -The vote should be free and secret.

   -Tax System → all charged.


  3.2. Economic Thought.

   -Defend physiocracy.
   -Before illustration mainstream economics was mercantilism.
   -Physiocracy defends:

      -Protectionism.
      -Accumulation of precious metals as a source of wealth.
      -Free trade and price.
      -Free competition.
      -Private property.
      -Freedom of the industry.


3.3. The encyclopedia.

   -Try to collect all the knowledge of the time → mathematics, nature ...
   -The early Enlightenment thinkers:

      -Montesquien → separation of powers.
      -Roussean → national sovereignty.
      -Votaire → tax system.
      -Diderot → encyclopedia.


  3.4. The enlightened despotism.

   -Some monarchs tried to make reforms applying the principles of progress and modernity illustration without losing any power, is what we call enlightened despotism.
   -Improvements are introduced for the people but that it can decide anything.
   -Improvement of enlightened despotism:

      -Streamlining state management.
      -Reforms of education.
      -Construction of roads, canals ...
      -Freed in part production and trade.
      -Modernization of agriculture.

   -They want to reform the economy without giving up the privileges and the absolute power.
   -Causes liberal revolutions.
   -Some enlightened despots:

      -Carlos III of Spain.
      -Frederick II of Prussia.
      -Catherine of Russia.


4. The limited power of monarchy.

   -Des actual average age power limited by parliament.
   -English Parliament, 2 cambras :

      -Lords -> nobles and clergy .
      -Common → bourgeois chosen censatario suffrage.

   -Parliament has legislative power over taxes and war.
   - XVII Century new Stuart dynasty intended to be absolute king → civil war → beheaded king republic.
   -Oliver Cromwell makes Republic  → military dictatorship.
   -Death Cromwell parliament reinstall monarchy → Carlos II.
   -Carlos II forced to sign " Habeas Corpus " → text that prevents the king absolute power.
   -Carlos II wants more power → off → 2nd revolution Stuart and new dynasty → Orange → swear " Bill of the Rigths " → document limiting royal power and subjected some real decisions in parliament.
   -Results → England 1st country :

      -To monarchy limited.
      -Separation of the three powers (legislative, executive and judicial ) .
      -Ensures individual freedom.


5. The eighteenth century in Spain.

  5.1. War of succession.

   -Charles II of Austria dies without descending.
   -Two candidates for the throne:

      -Archduke Charles of Austria.
      -Felipe de Borbón.

   -No agreement → war of succession.
   -Two sides:

      -Charles of Austria:
   
         -International -> UK, Netherlands, Portugal and the Austrian Empire.
         -In Spain -> Crown of Aragon.
         
      -Felipe de Borbón:

         -International -> France.
         -In Spain -> Castilla.

   -Carlos inherits the Austrian Empire.
   -European Powers → Utrecht Treaty fold.
   -War continues nationwide.
   -1714 → win of the Bourbon troops.
   -Succession War of 1701-1714.


  5.2. Absolutism and centralism.

   -Bourbon = absolutism.
   -Cuts virtually nullified.
   -Impose → centralism and uniformity.
   -New management → Castilian model imposed by decree new plant:

      -Territory divided into provinces.
      -At the head of each province → General Captain.
      -Justice → manage audiences.
      -Areas → governed magistrates.
      -Tax → raise mayors.


  5.3. Bourbon reformism.

   -Illustration in Spain little expansion.
   -At the reign of Carlos III → supports Spanish Enlightenment and begin a program of reforms to improve education, the economy ...
   -Major reforms:

      -Create new schools.
      -Impose royal authority over the church.
      -Liberalize wheat prices.
      -Free trade with America.
      
   -Overall eighteenth century Spain:

      -Significant increase in population.
      -Increased agricultural production.

   -Modernisation of trade → creations colonial trading companies trading products.
   -Industrial Modernization → Creating articles.
   -Tariffs to protect the industry.
   -No industrial development for poverty of the peasants.


6. The American Revolution:

   -Eighteenth century on the East Coast (now USA) → were 13 English colonies .
   -Colonists demanding independence because:

      - Britain does pay a lot of taxes .
      -Britain has commercial monopoly and therefore are forced to trade.
      -Arrive Enlightenment ideas → freedom and equality.
      -They have no representation on the British parliament.
      
   -April 7 de1766 → the declaration of independence occurs USA .
   -1766 to 1783 → war of independence.
   -Settlers → aided by France and Spain → commanded by George Washington.
   -1783 → Great Britain recognized the independence of USA → Versailles Peace .
   -Birth of a new state → United States :

    -1st president George Washington.
    - New state → political liberalism :

      -National sovereignty.
      -Separation of powers.
      - Single Freedom .
      -Separation church / state.
      -Constitution → law → law guarantees the right and freedoms of all citizens.